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In an iterative development model with close customer involvement and verbal communication of requirements, there is an inherent risk of changes in the system architecture. This is due to the evolving understanding of requirements and the potential for new requirements to emerge as the project progresses.Reference: The ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager syllabus emphasizes the importance of managing risks in iterative development models1.It suggests that test managers should be prepared for changes, including possible alterations to the system architecture, as part of the risk management process23. This approach ensures that the testing strategy remains flexible and responsive to changes throughout the development lifecycle. 

Determining the cost of external failures involves analyzing the impact of defects that escape into production. This includes the direct costs associated with fixing the defects, as well as the indirect costs such as customer dissatisfaction, damage to the company's reputation, and potential loss of business. By quantifying these costs, the Test Manager can illustrate the financial benefits of comprehensive testing in preventing high-cost external failures, thereby demonstrating its value as an investment rather than a cost overhead.Reference: The ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager documents provide guidelines on how to establish and use metrics to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of the testing process, including the cost of quality and the Return on Investment (ROI) for testing activities. These references support the rationale behind choosing option C as the verified answer.

The correct answer is C. Change and configuration management. This is because a smoke test is a type of test that checks the basic functionality and stability of a new build before proceeding to more detailed testing. A smoke test is an example of change and configuration management, which is the activity of controlling and tracking the changes made to the software and its configuration items throughout the software development lifecycle.Reference:Certified Tester Advanced Level Test Manager (CTAL-TM) - ISTQB not-for-profit association,ISTQB Test Manager Certification - ISTQB Exams Worldwide - ISTQB Official Registration,Managing the Test Team - ISTQB not-for-profit association

Test-driven development (TDD) is a core principle of Agile software development. In TDD, test cases are created before the code is written, and the code is developed to pass these tests.This approach emphasizes requirements and solutions evolving through collaborative effort and is a key practice in Agile methodologies12. Reference: The Agile Alliance describes TDD as a style of programming tightly interwoven with coding, testing, and design, which is a fundamental aspect of Agile development3.Wikipedia also notes that TDD is related to the test-first programming concepts of extreme programming, an Agile methodologyThis is because test-driven development (TDD) is a style of programming in which coding, testing, and design are tightly interwoven. TDD is a core principle of agile software development, which is an iterative and adaptive approach that values customer collaboration, working software, and responding to change.Agile AllianceReference:Certified Tester Advanced Level Test Manager (CTAL-TM) - ISTQB not-for-profit association,ISTQB Test Manager Certification - ISTQB Exams Worldwide - ISTQB Official Registration,What is Test Driven Development (TDD)? | Agile Alliance

The best action that the Test Manager can take prior to the start of the next test phase for the next release is to ensure that the correct stakeholders' participation during the risk assessment process. This is because the risk assessment process is crucial for identifying and prioritizing the risks that may affect the quality of the system, and allocating testing resources accordingly. The correct stakeholders are those who have the authority,knowledge, and interest in the system and its risks, and who can provide valuable input and feedback to the test team. By involving the correct stakeholders, the Test Manager can ensure that the risk-based test approach is aligned with the project objectives and the stakeholder expectations, and that the most critical areas are tested adequately.Reference:Certified Tester Advanced Level Test Manager (CTAL-TM) - ISTQB not-for-profit association,ISTQB Test Manager Certification - ISTQB Exams Worldwide - ISTQB Official Registration,Managing the Test Team - ISTQB not-for-profit association

Being the developer of testing tools used for automation is likely to develop the necessary skills to effectively test a software system because it involves a deep understanding of testing processes and the creation of tools that facilitate these processes. This experience provides insight into the intricacies of test automation, which is crucial for designing effective tests and ensuring thorough coverage of the system under test.

An iterative/incremental lifecycle model is a type of software development lifecycle that divides the project into smaller iterations or increments, each delivering a part of the functionality and undergoing its own planning, analysis, design, implementation, and testing phases1.This model is suitable for projects that have aggressive schedules, unclear requirements, new technologies, distributed teams, and high quality expectations, as it allows for early feedback, risk reduction, parallel development, frequent delivery, and continuous improvement2. Therefore, option B is the correct answer.Option A is incorrect because a spiral model is a type of iterative/incremental model that adds risk analysis and prototyping activities to each iteration3.While this model can also handle unclear requirements, new technologies, and high quality expectations, it may not be the best choice for projects that have aggressive schedules and distributed teams, as it requires more time and communication for risk assessment and prototyping4.Option C is incorrect because a V-model is a type of sequential model that maps each development phase to a corresponding testing phase in a V-shaped diagram5. This model is suitable for projects that have clear and stable requirements, well-known technologies, co-located teams, and moderate quality expectations, as it allows for early verification, traceability, and defect prevention. However, this model may not be the best choice for projects that have aggressive schedules, unclear requirements, new technologies, distributed teams, and high quality expectations, as it does not allow for early feedback, risk reduction, parallel development, frequent delivery, and continuous improvement. Option D is incorrect because a waterfall model is a type of sequential model that follows a linear sequence of phases from requirements to deployment. This model is suitable for projects that have simple and fixed requirements, well-known technologies, co-located teams, and low quality expectations, as it allows for easy planning, management, and documentation.However, this model may not be the best choice for projects that have aggressive schedules, unclear requirements, new technologies, distributed teams, and high quality expectations, as it does not allow for early feedback, risk reduction, parallel development, frequent delivery, and continuous improvement.Reference:1: ISTQB Glossary, Iterative/incremental lifecycle model2: ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.13: ISTQB Glossary, Spiral model4: ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.15: ISTQB Glossary, V-model : ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.1 : ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.1 : ISTQB Glossary, Waterfall model : ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.1 : ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.2.1

Performance testing is the process of determining the speed, responsiveness, and stability of a system under a given workload1.Performance testing should be started as early as possible in the software development lifecycle, preferably during unit and integration testing, to identify and resolve performance issues before they become costly or risky2.Starting performance testing early can also help to validate the performance requirements, design, and architecture of the system, as well as to optimize the performance testing strategy and scope3. Therefore, option A is the correct answer.Option B is incorrect because deferring the start of performance testing until all functional defects have been resolved can delay the detection and resolution of performance issues, increase the cost and effort of performance testing, and reduce the confidence and quality of the system4. Option C is incorrect because leveraging end users to do unit-level performance testing and automated tools for system-level performance testing can introduce inconsistency, bias, and inefficiency in the performance testing process, as well as compromise the reliability and validity of the performance test results.Option D is incorrect because requiring all performance tests to pass before starting functional testing can create unrealistic or unnecessary expectations, as well as hinder the progress and feedback of the functional testing activities.Reference:1: ISTQB Glossary, Performance Testing2: ISTQB Certified Tester - Performance Testing (CT- PT)33: ISTQB Performance Testing - TesterYou44:Performance Testing - ISTQB not-for-profit association:ISTQB - PERFORMANCE TESTING:Performance Testing - ISTQB not-for-profit association

Product risk analysis is the process of identifying and assessing the product risks that may affect the quality or functionality of the software under test1. Product risk analysis involves two primary activities: risk identification and risk assessment.Risk identification is the activity of finding, naming, and describing the risks that might affect the software under test2.Risk assessment is the activity of estimating the impact and probability of occurrence (likelihood) of the identified risks, and prioritizing them based on these factors3. Therefore, option B is the correct answer. Option A is incorrect because risk testing and risk management are not primary activities of product risk analysis, but rather activities that follow or use the results of product risk analysis.Risk testing is the activity of designing, implementing, and executing tests based on the product risk levels to reduce the level of product risks and inform stakeholders of their status4.Risk management is the activity of planning, monitoring, and controlling the risks and the risk mitigation actions in the software project5. Option C is incorrect because risk identification and risk testing are not primary activities of product risk analysis, but rather activities that are part of product risk analysis and risk-based testing respectively.Option D is incorrect because risk management and risk assessment are not primary activities of product risk analysis, but rather activities that are part of risk management and product risk analysis respectively.Reference:1: ISTQB Glossary, Product Risk Analysis2: ISTQB Glossary, Risk Identification3: ISTQB Glossary, Risk Assessment4: ISTQB Glossary, Risk-Based Testing5: ISTQB Glossary, Risk Management :Product Risk Analysis (PRA) | TMap:Risk-Based Testing | ISTQB Glossary:Risk Analysis | ISTQB Glossary

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a technique used to analyze the causes of faults (defects).The technique visually models how logical relationships between failures, human errors, and external events can combine to cause specific faults to disclose1.FTA can help to determine the root cause of observed and potential failures by tracing back the fault events to their initiating causes and identifying the combinations of events that can lead to the fault occurrence2. Therefore, option A is the correct answer. Option B is incorrect because FTA is not used to select the pairs of items to be used in pairwise testing, which is a technique to generate test cases based on the combinations of two input parameters. Option C is incorrect because FTA is not a formal technique used to identify the likely effects of risks, which are uncertain events or conditions that may have a positive or negative impact on the project objectives.Option D is incorrect because FTA is not used to target defect-based testing, which is a testing technique that uses information about the types, causes, and locations of defects discovered in previous projects to guide the selection, creation, and prioritization of test cases.Reference:1: Fault Tree Analysis | ISTQB Glossary2:Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) - Software Testing Genius: ISTQB Glossary, Pairwise Testing : ISTQB Glossary, Risk : ISTQB Glossary, Defect-Based Test Technique :Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) - Software Testing Genius:Fault Tree Analysis | ISTQB Glossary

A model-based testing strategy is a testing strategy that uses models to represent the desired behavior and structure of the system under test, and to derive test cases, test data, test procedures, and test oracles1. A model-based testing strategy requires an activity to select an appropriate quality standard, such as ISO 9126, to be used to guide the testing.A quality standard is a set of criteria, guidelines, or characteristics that define the quality attributes of a software product, such as functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, maintainability, and portability2.A quality standard can help to define the quality requirements, objectives, and measures for the system under test, and to evaluate the quality of the test results and the test process3. Therefore, option C is the correct answer. Option A is incorrect because conducting a quality risk analysis with all affected stakeholders is not an activity specific to a model-based testing strategy, but rather a general testing activity that can be applied to any testing strategy.A quality risk analysis is a process of identifying and assessing the quality risks that may affect the system under test, and prioritizing them based on their impact and likelihood4. Option B is incorrect because conducting operational profiling to determine the expected usage of the system is not an activity specific to a model-based testing strategy, but rather an activity related to a usage-based testing strategy. An operational profile is a statistical representation of the relative frequencies of the inputs, operations, and operating conditions of a system in its operational environment. Option D is incorrect because creating the test charters for the exploratory testing sessions is not an activity specific to a model-based testing strategy, but rather an activity related to an exploratory testing strategy.A test charter is a document that defines the scope, objective, and approach of an exploratory testing session.Reference:1: ISTQB Glossary, Model-Based Testing2: ISTQB Glossary, Quality Standard3: ISTQB Advanced Level Test Manager Syllabus, Section 1.3.14: ISTQB Glossary, Quality Risk Analysis : ISTQB Glossary, Operational Profile : ISTQB Glossary, Test Charter :Model-Based Tester - ISTQB not-for-profit association:ISTQB Model-Based Testing Certification - ISTQB Exams Worldwide - ISTQB ...:ISTQB - ABOUT MODEL-BASED TESTER EXT.:ISTQB Certified Tester -- Model-Based Tester (CT-MBT)